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4. General Matching for Hate Speech Types and Targets
Unlike in the previous chapters, the tables in this chapter contain all data, including zeros, in order to more conveniently make comparisons.
In order to be able to place the tables on a single page, hate speech types have been identified with the use of capitalized letters of the Roman alphabet.
For the sake of convenience, we once again provide the list types, although without comments:
A. Making direct and straightforward calls for violence;
B. Calling for violence in the form of generalized slogans;
C. Advancing direct and straightforward calls for discriminatory practices;
D. Issuing calls for discriminatory practices in the form of generalized slogans;
E. Releasing veiled calls for violence and discriminatory practices;
F. Creating a nefarious image of the given ethnic community or religious group;
G. Justifying historic cases of violence and discrimination;
H. Releasing publications and/or pronouncements designed to cast doubt on universally recognized historical facts of violence and discrimination;
I. Mentioning the name of an ethnic community or religious group in a derogatory way;
J. Making statements to the effect that an ethnic community or religious group is inherently deficient;
K. Claiming that certain historical crimes had been committed by an ethnic community or religious group;
L. Pointing out (for the purpose of getting the target discredited) that an ethnic community or religious group has been maintaining links with Russian or foreign political or government structures;
M. Claiming that an ethnic community or religious group is criminal by nature;
N. Pointing out that an ethnic community or religious group has some inherent moral deficiencies;
O. Making remarks that an ethnic community or religious group is disproportionately well-off, over-represented in government structures or mass media operations, etc.;
P. Accusing an ethnic community or religious group of negative influences on the society or government (for example, “The Russian national identity gets diluted,” etc.);
Q. Portraying certain ethnic communities or religious groups or their representatives in a derogatory or insulting context;
R. Calling for action to prevent migrants of an ethnic community or religious group from settling in the given region (community, neighborhood, etc.);
S. Providing quoted observations or phrases without commentary.
4.1. MATTER JUDGED TO BE SUPPORTIVE OF HATE SPEECH
Total articles selected: 165
| . | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | | Non-whites | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Non-Slavs | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | | Africans | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Asian ethnic communities | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 0 | | Caucasus and trans-Caucasus ethnic communities | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 13 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | | Central Asian ethnic communities | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | | Americans | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 9 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | | Jews | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | | Ukrainians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | | Roma | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | | Chechens | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 0 | | Azeris | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | | Non-Russians | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 11 | 5 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 6< | 7 | 2 | 5 | 0 | | Non-Christians | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | Non-Orthodox (possible Christians) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | Muslims | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 8< | 6< | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 0 | | Catholics (and Uniats) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | | Jehovah’s Witnesses | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Scientologists | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | New and small-sized religious groups | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Estonians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Arabs | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | Afghans | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | | Pakistanis | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Armenians | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 0 | | Meskhetian Turks | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 8 | 0 | | Kurds | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 0 | | New Muslim teachings | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Russians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Tartars | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Numbers above five are in boldface type.
We are aware of the dominant hate speech types and targets from the first tables. What conclusions can be drawn from the above information?
Roma and Central Asian ethnic communities appear to have been mentioned primarily because of perceived connections with local crime gangs. Though it hardly comes as a surprise, (particularly given the drug trafficking problem) the same could be said of the Azeris, though the latter have also been slandered and defamed in other ways. Suffering the same general fate have been Caucasus-origin ethnic communities and Meskhetian Turks. Notably, the Chechens appear to be more defamed for their “overall image” rather than for their alleged relations to criminal activities.
The dominant hate speech types were expected to be more applicable to Armenians, Jews or Americans, so it seems to be rather strange that Jehovah’s Witnesses, for one, have been made a target for such perceptions.
Admittedly, the data is too sketchy to allow categorization of the type of hate speech directed against the Jehovah’s Witnesses.
4.2. MATTER JUDGED AS CENSURING HATE SPEECH
Total articles selected: 35
| . | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | | Non-whites | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Non-Slavs | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Africans | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Asian ethnic communities | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | | Caucasus and trans-Caucasus ethnic communities | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 6 | 0 | | Central Asian ethnic communities | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | | Americans | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Jews | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Ukrainians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Roma | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Chechens | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Azeris | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Non-Russians | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | Non-Christians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Non-Orthodox (possible Christians) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Muslims | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Catholics (and Uniats) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Jehovah’s Witnesses | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Scientologists | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | New and small-sized religious groups | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Estonians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Arabs | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Afghans | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Pakistanis | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Armenians | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Meskhetian Turks | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 00 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Kurds | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | New Muslim teachings | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 00 | 0 | | Russians | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Tartars | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
The media community has been particularly active and “consistent” in condemning hate speech practices directed against the Caucasus and trans-Caucasus ethnic communities, Muslims and Jews. There are several reasons for this, the first of which is the fact that the media’s condemnation comes in response to a torrent of hate speech directed at these groups (i.e., the more hate speech exists, the more there is to condemn). Second, a concerted effort was made to prevent the post September 11 propaganda campaign from causing anti-Muslim hysteria (with an analogous campaign was and is still being carried out related to the war in Chechnya). Third, anti-Semitism has traditionally been associated with aggressive and harsh encroachments on democratic values.
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